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行政行为概念的考证分析和科学重构/杨海坤

时间:2024-07-24 06:41:38 来源: 法律资料网 作者:法律资料网 阅读:8587
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  摘要: 行政行为理论是我国行政法学的核心理论之一,也是行政法学中最值得研究而其研究难度最大的课题。使行政行为概念明晰化,不仅是构筑行政法学科学体系枢纽部分的需要,而且是适应我国依法行政和司法审查实践的迫切需要。目前,我国行政法学中行政行为已成为一个极具争议的动态性概念,对于行政行为概念出现了两种比较对立的观点,一种意见秉承大陆法系行政法学主流派的严格主义态度,认为采取外延较狭窄的狭义说;另一种观点意见认为要对行政行为采取宽泛主义的解释,要把各类行政活动纳入行政行为体系中。在对目前十种代表性观点的介绍以及对它们内在关联脉络梳理之后,发现行政行为在学术研究中循着“剥笋式”的外延不断缩小的顺序,而在实践中需要的却是“盖楼式”不断扩大外延的行政行为,因此,提出了在不完全摈弃传统行政行为概念和理论的前提下,应采用比较宽泛的行政行为概念,使之具有更多的包容性、前瞻性和适应性,更适合当今中国依法行政、建设法治政府的需要。
关键词: 行政行为 公共行政 司法审查 概念重构



行政行为作为行政法上一个重要概念,有着悠久的历史,但又被称为行政法学中“充满混乱、矛盾和争议的领域”。1笔者早在多年前就指出:“从更广阔的视野来看,行政行为已经成为我国行政法学研究中一个极为混乱的基本范畴。” 2由于行政管理行为本身是多种多样而又变化多端的,因此,行政行为概念的提出,首先是依法行政管理和实现行政目的的需要;同时,现代行政法的主要功能在于控制行政权、防止行政权的滥用,因此,行政行为概念的另一个作用在于帮助梳理和规范行政权,包括对行政行为的手段、对象、分类等进行科学的抽象,以此服务于行政救济特别是行政诉讼的需要。“‘行政行为’一词已非单纯的学术概念,而系‘法律用语’,如何理解和确定行政行为的内涵和范围具有重要的现实意义。”3行政行为这一概念研究尽管有难度,但仍非常有必要进行深入、全面的研究。长期以来,行政法学界对“行政行为”这一概念的界定可谓众口不一、莫衷一是。这一点不仅反映在学界长期的争论中,也反映在行政诉讼法制定以及后来对之反复进行的司法解释当中。应松年教授曾经说过:“行政行为是行政法中最重要、最复杂、最富实践意义、最有中国特色,又是研究最为薄弱的一环。”4 在一定意义上可以说,对于行政行为这一概念的研究深度,就体现出整个行政法学的成熟程度和科学水平。
一、行政行为概念的历史渊源、学说简介及学术归纳

从世界范围来看,行政行为概念主要因大陆法系国家行政诉讼制度的需要而衍生。法国大革命后,学者便开始用Acte Administratif一词说明行政机关在法律之下对具体事件的处理。自1810年起,该词便普遍被法国学者所接受,并视其与法院判决有同等地位。1826年起Otto Mayer将行政行为概念Verwaltungsakt引入德国,并界定其为行政机关于个别事件中,规律何者为法,而对人民所为具有公权力之宣示。由于这一界定并不清晰,致使以后德国学者对于行政行为概念的理解并不一致。日本学者随后从德国引进行政行为概念,嗣后,中国学者,特别是后来的台湾地区学者承袭德国和日本学说,在行政法学中也引进了行政行为概念,并成为其行政法学的基本范畴。可是,概念历史的悠久并未使其定义明晰起来,在长期的演变历程中,行政法学界产生了对行政行为的诸多定义。

在国外,各国关于行政行为通说的概念存在很大差别。因篇幅,对各国概念便不一一列举。在国内,有关学说对此也是众说纷纭。总的来说,行政行为的定义主要有四种有代表性的解释:最广义说、广义说、狭义说、最狭义说。然而,就算是这四说的具体内容,在不同的学术著作中,也有着不同的表述。5在较早出版的张尚?教授所著《走出低谷的中国行政法学》中,四说被认为是 :

1、最广义说。最广义说论者认为,行政行为是一切与国家行政管理有关的行为,包括行政机关行使职权的行为、在行政诉讼中的行为,以及公民、法人和其他组织等引起行政法律关系产生、变更和消灭的行为;

2、广义说。广义说论者认为行政行为是指行政机关所为的一切行为,包括行政机关的各种法律行为和非法律行为,民事法律行为和行政法律行为;

3、狭义说。狭义的行政行为,是指行政机关在行政管理活动中所为的一切具有法律意义的行为;

4、最狭义说。最狭义的行政行为是指行政机关在行政管理活动中对具体的人和事采取具体措施的行为,相当于具体行政行为。

其后,许多行政法著作和论文都引述了“四说”,兹以章剑生教授所著《现代行政法基本理论》一书为例,其引述并概括的“四说”则被界定为:

1、最广义说。“行政行为是国家行政机关实施行政管理活动的总称……实际上是行政管理活动的代称。”

2、广义说。“行政行为是国家行政机关或者法律、法规授权的组织和个人具有行政职权因素的行为,包括行政法律行为、准行政法律行为和行政事实行为。”

3、狭义说。“行政行为是享有行政权能的组织或个人运用行政权对行政相对人所作的法律行为。”

4、最狭义说。“行政行为,是指行政主体依法行使国家行政权,针对具体事项或事实,对外部采取的能产生直接法律效果使具体事实规则化的行为。” 6

为了更全面地了解和研究我国学者对于行政行为概念的理解,我们对行政行为概念进行了认真的梳理,根据目前所见到的各种资料,发现事实上在行政行为具体概念的界定上,我国学界自广义至狭义为顺序至少存在着十种代表性理论。大致内容如下:

1、最广义说:行政行为是指一切与国家行政管理有关的行为,包括国家行政机关及其公务人员的行为,以及行政相对人的行为。说得再明白一些,就是一切与行政有关的行为都是行政行为。这一说的“行政行为”概念相对应民事行为等概念而存在。

2、主体说:行政行为是指行政机关的一切行为,包括行政机关运用行政权所作的事实行为和未运用行政权所作的私法行为。这一说某种程度上就等于最广义说减去非行政主体的行为,但又加上了行政主体所做的那些非行政管理活动的私法行为。

3、合法行为说:行政行为在本质上应是行政主体所作的合法行为。只有合法的行为才能发生预期的行政法效果。这一说其实就等于主体说减去行政主体的违法行为。

4、行政权说:行政行为是指行使行政权的行为,其实也即行政机关进行行政管理活动的总称。7 这一说其实就等于主体说减去行政主体私法行为。

5、公法行为说:行政行为是指行政机关在行政管理活动中所为的一切具有法律意义的行为,既包括抽象行政行为,也包括具体行政行为。这一说其实就等于行政权说减去行政事实行为。

6、外部行为说:行政行为是指行政主体运用行政职权所实施的对外具有法律意义、产生法律效果的行为。与通说相比,该说强调了行政行为的外部性,将“内部行政行为”排除出去。这一说其实就等于公法行为说减去内部行政行为。

7、行政服务说:行政法理论基础中的服务论在我国很早就出现了,但将服务论具体应用到行政行为的概念界定中,在国内学者中比较典型的是由莫于川教授所提出的:“行政主体履行行政职责、运用行政职权而实施行政管理或提供行政服务并产生法律效果的行为。行政行为既包括行政主体实施行政管理的活动,也包括行政主体提供行政服务的行为。” 8此说的特色就在于将行政服务纳入行政行为范畴中,在此笔者姑且将之称之为“行政服务说”。

8、行政立法行为除外说:行政行为包括除行政立法行为以外的全部有行政法意义的行为,即包括具体行政行为和除行政立法行为外的抽象行政行为。这一说其实就等于公法行为说减去行政立法行为。例如,姜明安教授曾主张此说。9

9、具体行为说:行政行为,是指行政主体依法行使国家行政权,针对具体事项或事实,对外部采取的能产生直接法律效果使具体事实规则化的行为。 10该说认为行政行为抽象行为,持该说的多数学者还认为内部行政行为及行政合同也不属于行政行为。这一说其实就等于行政立法行为除外说减去抽象行政行为。

JOINT DECLARATION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ON THE QUESTION OF HONG KONG ——附加英文版

the Government of the People's Republic of China,Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern


JOINT DECLARATION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND AND THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ON THE QUESTION OF HONG KONG


WHOLE DOCUMENT
  
  Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland
  the Government of the People's Republic of China have reviewed 
with
  sfaction the friendly relations existing between the two 
Governments
  peoples in recent years and agreed that a proper negotiated
settlement
  he question of Hong Kong, which is left over from the past, is 
con-
  ve to the maintenance of the prosperity and stability of Hong Kong
and
  he further strengthening and development of the relations between 
the
  countries on a new basis. To this end, they have, after talks 
between
  delegations of the two Governments, agreed to declare as follows:
  
  he Government of the People's Republic of China declares 
that to
  ver the Hong Kong area (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon and 
the
  Territories, hereinafter referred to as Hong Kong) is the 
common
  ration of the entire Chinese people, and that it has decided to
resume
  exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong with effect from 1 July
1997.
  
  he Government of the United Kingdom declares that it will restore
Hong
  to the People's Republic of China with effect from 1 July 1997.
  
  he Government of the People's Republic of China declares 
that the
  c policies of the People's Republic of China regarding Hong Kong 
are
  ollows:
  Upholding national unity and territorial integrity and taking 
account
  he history of Hong Kong and its realities, the People's 
Republic of
  a has decided to establish, in accordance with the 
provisions of
  cle 31 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, a 
Hong
  Special Administrative Region upon resuming the 
exercise  of
  reignty over Hong Kong.
  The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will be directly
under the
  ority of the Central People's Government of the People's 
Republic of
  a. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will enjoy 
a high
  ee of autonomy, except in foreign and defence affairs which are 
the
  onsibilities of the Central People's Government.
  The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will be 
vested with
  utive, legislative and independent judicial power, including 
that of
  l adjudication. The laws currently in force in Hong Kong will 
remain
  cally unchanged.
  The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
will be
  osed of local inhabitants. The chief executive will be 
appointed by
  Central People's Government on the basis of the results of 
elections
  onsultations to be held locally. Principal officials will be
nominated
  he chief executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region 
for
  intment by the Central People's Government. Chinese and 
foreign
  onals previously working in the public and police services 
in the
  rnment departments of Hong Kong may remain in employment. British 
and
  r foreign nationals may also be employed to serve as advisers or 
hold
  ain public posts in government departments of the Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region.
  The current social and economic systems in Hong Kong will 
remain
  anged, and so will the life-style. Rights and freedoms, 
including
  e of the person, of speech, of the press, of assembly, of
association,
  ravel, of movement, of correspondence, of strike, of 
choice of
  pation, of academic research and of religious belief will be 
ensured
  aw in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Private 
property,
  rship of enterprises, legitimate right of inheritance and 
foreign
  stment will be protected by law.
  The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will retain the
status of
  ee port and a separate customs territory.
  The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will retain the
status of
  nternational financial centre, and its markets for foreign 
exchange,
  , securities and futures will continue. There will be free 
flow of
  tal. The Hong Kong dollar will continue to circulate and remain
freely
  ertible.
  The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region will have 
independent
  nces. The Central People's Government will not levy taxes on the 
Hong
  Special Administrative Region.
  
  The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region may establish 
mutually
  ficial economic relations with the United Kingdom and other
countries,
  e economic interests in Hong Kong will be given due regard.
  Using the name of "Hong Kong, China", the Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region may on its own maintain and develop 
economic and
  ural relations and conclude relevant agreements with states, 
regions
  relevant international organizations. The Government of the
Hong Kong
  ial Administrative Region may on its own issue travel 
documents for
  y into and exit from Hong Kong.
  The maintenance of public order in the  Hong  Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region will be the responsibility of the Government
of the
  Kong Special Administrative Region.
  The above-stated basic policies of the People's Republic of 
China
  rding Hong Kong and the elaboration of them in Annex I to this 
Joint
  aration will be stipulated, in a Basic Law of the Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region of the People's Republic of China, by the 
National
  le's Congress of the People's Republic of China, and they will 
remain
  anged for 50 years.
  
  he Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the
People's
  blic of China declare that, during the transitional period
between the
  of the entry into force of this Joint Declaration and 30 June 
1997,
  Government of the United Kingdom will be responsible 
for the
  nistration of Hong Kong with the object of maintaining and 
preserving
  economic prosperity and social stability; and that the 
Government of
  People's Republic of China will give its cooperation 
in this
  ection.
  
  he Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the
People's
  blic of China declare that, in order to ensure a smooth 
transfer of
  rnment in 1997, and with a view to the effective 
implementation of
  Joint Declaration, a Sino-British Joint Liaison Group will be set 
up
  this Joint Declaration enters into force; and that it 
will be
  blished and will function in accordance with the provisions of 
Annex
  o this Joint Declaration.
  
  he Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the
People's
  blic of China declare that land leases in Hong Kong and other 
related
  ers will be dealt with in accordance with the provisions of Annex 
III
  his Joint Declaration.
  
  he Government of the United Kingdom and the Government of the
People's
  blic of China agree to implement the preceding declarations 
and the
  xes to this Joint Declaration.
  
  his Joint Declaration is subject to ratification and shall enter 
into
  e on the date of the exchange of instruments of ratification, 
which
  l take place in Beijing before 30 June 1985. This Joint 
Declaration
  its Annexes shall be equally binding. Done in duplicate at
Beijing on
  ecember 1984 in the English and Chinese languages, both texts 
being
  lly authentic.
  the                  For the
  rnment of the United Kingdom     Government of the
  reat Britain and Northern Ireland   People's Republic of China
  rate Thatcher             Zhao Ziyang
 ANNEX I: ELABORATION BY THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF 
CHINA OF ITS BASIC POLICIES REGARDING HONG KONG
  
  Government of the People's Republic of China elaborates the 
basic
  cies of the People's Republic of China regarding Hong Kong as set 
out
  aragraph 3 of the Joint Declaration of the Government of the 
United
  dom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of 
the
  le's Republic of China on the Question of Hong Kong as follows:
  
  
  Constitution of the People's Republic of China stipulates in 
Article
  hat "the state may establish special administrative 
regions when
  ssary. The systems to be instituted in special administrative 
regions
  l be prescribed by laws enacted by the National People's 
Congress in
  light of the specific conditions." In accordance with this 
Article,
  People's Republic of China shall, upon the resumption of the 
exercise
  overeignty over Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, establish the Hong 
Kong
  ial Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.  
The
  onal People's Congress of the People's Republic of China shall 
enact
  promulgate a Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region
  he People's Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the 
Basic
  in accordance with the Constitution of the People's 
Republic of
  a, stipulating that after the establishment of the Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region the socialist system and socialist policies 
shall
  be practised in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and 
that
  Kong's previous capitalist system and life-style shall 
remain
  anged for 50 years.
  Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be directly 
under the
  ority of the Central People's Government of the People's 
Republic of
  a and shall enjoy a high degree of autonomy. Except for foreign 
and
  nce affairs which are the responsibilities of the Central 
People's
  rnment, the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be 
vested
  executive, legislative and independent judicial power, including
that
  inal adjudication. The Central People's Government shall
authorise the
  Kong Special Administrative Region to conduct on its own 
those
  rnal affairs specified in Section XI of this Annex.
  government and legislature of the Hong Kong Special 
Administrative
  on shall be composed of local inhabitants. The chief executive
of the
  Kong Special Administrative Region shall be selected by 
election or
  ugh consultations held locally and be appointed by the 
Central
  le's Government. Principal officials (equivalent to Secretaries)
shall
  nominated by the chief executive of  the  Hong  Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region and appointed by the Central People's 
Government.
  legislature of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region 
shall be
  tituted by elections. The executive authorities shall abide by
the law
  shall be accountable to the legislature.
  ddition to Chinese, English may also be used in organs of 
government
  in the courts in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
  t from displaying the national flag and national emblem 
of the
  le's Republic of China, the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region
  use a regional flag and emblem of its own.
  
  
  r the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region,
  laws previously in force in Hong Kong (i. e. the common law, rules 
of
  ty, ordinances, subordinate legislation and customary law) 
shall be
  tained, save for any that contravene the Basic Law and subject
to any
  dment by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region legislature. 
The
  slative power of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
shall be
  ed in the Legislature of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region.
  legislature may on its own authority enact laws in accordance with
the
  isions of the Basic Law and legal procedures, and report them to 
the
  ding Committee of the National People's Congress for the record. 
Laws
  ted by the legislature which are in accordance with the Basic Law 
and
  l procedures shall be regarded as valid.
  laws of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall be the
Basic
  and the laws previously in force in Hong Kong and laws enacted
by the
  Kong Special Administrative Region legislature as above.
  
  
  r the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region,
  judicial system previously practised in Hong Kong shall be 
maintained
  pt for those changes consequent upon the vesting in the courts
of the
  Kong Special Administrative Region of  the  power  of 
final
  dication.
  cial power in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region 
shall be
  ed in the courts of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. 
The
  ts shall exercise judicial power independently and free 
from any
  rference. Members of the judiciary shall be immune from legal 
action
  espect of their judicial functions. The courts shall decide 
cases in
  rdance with the laws of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region
  may refer to precedents in other common law jurisdictions. 
Judges of
  Hong Kong Special Administrative Region courts shall be 
appointed by
  chief executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region 
acting
  accordance with the recommendation of an independent 
commission
  osed of local judges, persons from the legal profession and 
other
  ent persons. Judges shall be chosen by reference to their 
judicial
  ities and may be recruited from other common law 
jurisdictions. A
  e may only be removed for inability to discharge the functions
of his
  ce, or for misbehaviour, by the chief executive of the 
Hong Kong
  ial Administrative Region acting in accordance with the
recommendation
  tribunal appointed by the chief judge of the court of final 
appeal,
  isting of not fewer than three local judges. 
Additionally, the
  intment or removal of principal judges (i. e. those of the 
highest
  ) shall be made by the chief executive with the endorsement of 
the
  Kong Special Administrative Region legislature and reported 
to the
  ding Committee of the National People's Congress for the record. 
The
  em of appointment and removal of judicial officers other than 
judges
  l be maintained.
  power of final judgment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region
  l be vested in the court of final appeal in the Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region, which may as required invite judges from 
other
  on law jurisdictions to sit on the court of final appeal.
  osecuting authority of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region
  l control criminal prosecutions free from any interference.
  he basis of the system previously operating in Hong Kong, the 
Hong
  Special Administrative Region Government shall on its 
own make
  ision for local lawyers and lawyers from outside the Hong Kong
Special
  nistrative Region to work and practise in the Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region.
  Central People's Government shall assist or authorise the Hong 
Kong
  ial Administrative Region Government to make appropriate 
arrangements
  reciprocal juridical assistance with foreign states.
  
  
  r the establishment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region,
  ic servants previously serving in Hong Kong in all 
government
  rtment, including the police department, and members of the 
judiciary
  all remain in employment and continue their service 
with pay,
  wances, benefits and conditions of service no less 
favourable than
  re. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region government 
shall pay
  uch persons who retire or complete their contracts, as well 
as to
  e who have retired before 1 July 1997, or to their dependants, 
all
  ions, gratuities, allowances and benefits due to them on terms
no less
  urable than before, and irrespective of their nationality or
place of
  dence.
  Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government may employ 
British
  other foreign nationals previously serving in the public 
service in
  Kong, and may recruit British and other foreign nationals 
holding
  anent identity cards of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region to
  e as public servants at all levels, except as heads 
of major
  rnment departments (corresponding to branches or 
departments at
  etary level) including the police department, and as deputy 
heads of
  of those departments. The Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region
  rnment may also employ British and other foreign nationals as
advisers
  overnment departments and, when there is a need, may recruit
qualified
  idates from outside the Hong Kong Special Administrative 
Region to
  essional and technical posts in government departments, 
The above
  l be employed only in their individual capacities and, like 
other
  ic servants, shall be responsible to the  Hong  Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region Government.
  appointment and promotion of public servants shall be on the basis 
of
  ifications, experience and ability. Hong Kong's previous 
system of
  uitment, employment, assessment, discipline, training and 
management
  the public service (including special bodies for appointment, pay 
and
  itions of service) shall, save for any provisions providing
privileged
  tment for foreign nationals, be maintained.
  
  
  Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall deal on its own 
with
  ncial matters, including disposing of its financial 
resources and
  ing up its budgets and its final accounts. The Hong Kong 
Special
  nistrative Region shall report its budgets and final accounts to 
the
  ral People's Government for the record.  The Central 
People's
  rnment shall not levy taxes on the Hong Kong Special 
Administrative
  on. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall 
use its
  ncial revenues exclusively for its own purposes and they shall
not be

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青岛市人民政府通告(关于修改《青岛市城市建设管理办法》)

山东省青岛市政府


青岛市人民政府通告(关于修改《青岛市城市建设管理办法》)
市政府




经市八届常委会第十四次会议于一九八二年十二月十二日审议通过,对《青岛市城市建设管理办法》第十八条有关房屋长边与长边间距的规定修改如下:新建住宅区控制在一比一点三到一比一点五;在原居住区建房控制在一比一点一到一比一点二。高层建筑不受这个规定的限制。现予
公布,希各单位和全市人民遵照执行。



1982年12月27日